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Caitlin E. McDonough-Goldstein @ideaspermatheca.bsky.social · 20/08/2026

If there is one thing we can agree on - it's that there are disagreements about the meaning and use of sex in biological research. Contribute to the @treeofsex.bsky.social research survey to let us know how you define sex in biology! univie.questionpro.eu/definitionsurvey

univie.questionpro.eu

ToS.DefinitionSurvey.QuestionPro

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Tree of Sex @treeofsex.bsky.social · 19/08/2026

New publication alert: Tree of Sex 2.0 members unpack the many, sometimes overlapping, sometimes conflicting uses of "sex" in biology. Lead author Caitlin McDonough-Goldstein @ideaspermatheca.bsky.social has an excellent explainer thread if you want a preview!

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Caitlin E. McDonough-Goldstein @ideaspermatheca.bsky.social · 17/08/2026

“What if, when both animals and plants are sexed, “sex” becomes a wholly other thing?” -Sandford (2022) Definitions of sex are models with their own strengths and limitations. Engaging with their influence on research is an opportunity to confront biases and consider alternate possibilities.

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Caitlin E. McDonough-Goldstein @ideaspermatheca.bsky.social · 17/08/2026

Building connections across components of sex allows for more nuanced evolutionary research like comparing the specific influence of sex on genetic diversity, genome architecture and phenotypic variation or how traits like sexual systems and sex determination interact to influence each other

Text at top: Components of "sex" combine to influence reproductive trait evolution
Composite with multiple figures that make connections among many different traits
Citations for figures: Ross et al. 2022, Niklas and Cobb 2014, Gourevitch et al. 2026, Pla et al. 2022, Kruger-Hadfield 2024 and Billiard et al. 2012

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Caitlin E. McDonough-Goldstein @ideaspermatheca.bsky.social · 17/08/2026

Breaking apart the idea of a singular sex can be useful to identify points of disagreement. For example, definitions of sexual selection have differing conceptions of sex ranging from strictly gametic access to including other traits that influence available reproductive resources

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Caitlin E. McDonough-Goldstein @ideaspermatheca.bsky.social · 17/08/2026

We use the metaphor of a labyrinth to illustrate how engaging in an active process of considering the meaning of sex can untangle the different components contributing to any particular use of sex which can be helpful for navigating comparisons in the evolution of reproductive traits across species

Background of a light grey labyrinth or maze. At the top is a black box with sex at the bottom is a white box with reproductive strategy. In between are layers of items with recombination in dark orange and meiosis in light orange, followed by syngamy in dark green, followed by gamete in light green, followed by mating type in grey and sex type in blue, followed by mating system in grey and sexual system in purple.
Terms in boxes are connected to each other by colored lines.

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Caitlin E. McDonough-Goldstein @ideaspermatheca.bsky.social · 17/08/2026

We look at the different uses of gender in science and society and suggest that different concepts of gender represent parallel solutions to the limitations of available sex language to describe the nuances of properties or experiences of individuals that scholars and activists want to describe

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Caitlin E. McDonough-Goldstein @ideaspermatheca.bsky.social · 17/08/2026

“If you were a single-celled alga sitting in a pond, you wouldn’t see the world as splitting into males and females” - L. Hurst quoted in Whitfield (2004) Traits that influence reproductive outcomes by impacts on compatibility or opportunity may not be seen with only binary gamete categories

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Caitlin E. McDonough-Goldstein @ideaspermatheca.bsky.social · 17/08/2026

What it means to be male and female is also complicated in organisms that are both and opens questions like whether hermaphrodite is a type of sex, the difference between a hermaphroditic flower and plant, and if haplodiploidy could be considered cross-generational hermaphroditism

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Caitlin E. McDonough-Goldstein @ideaspermatheca.bsky.social · 17/08/2026

Shifting meanings of sex can be seen in differing research focus on sex determination between developmental biologists (process in an individual) and evolutionary geneticists (inheritance of traits) and in terms like primary sex ratio that use sex to reference a genotype rather than a phenotype

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Caitlin E. McDonough-Goldstein @ideaspermatheca.bsky.social · 17/08/2026

In considering sex as female and male, we found that the implications changed based on the research question context e.g., sex as an individual phenotype, compatibility for reproduction, and/or parental relationships And while anisogamy may be critical for some aspects, it is not the whole story

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Caitlin E. McDonough-Goldstein @ideaspermatheca.bsky.social · 17/08/2026

We review an array of scientific thinking on different ways to approach points of similarity and difference in sex across lifecycles, processes, properties of individuals, and systems of multiple individuals. Including many disagreements over the utility of the terms female and male.

Text says: Differing applications of "sex" across individuals and life cycles
Subramaniam and Bartlett et al. 2023
Meissner 2021
Wasson and Newberry 1995
Warkentin et al. in press
Bai and Xu 2013 and Bai 2015
Coelho et al. 2018
Jesson and Garnock-Jones 2012
Wagner 1975
Panell and Jordan 2022

Images show different versions of life cycles with male and female labeled as well as ways to show possible types of individuals in a system or to depict when sexual differences appear in a life cycle

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Caitlin E. McDonough-Goldstein @ideaspermatheca.bsky.social · 17/08/2026

Even the concept of a gamete becomes less stable when looking across uses that include heteromorphic sperm without DNA and parthenogenetic eggs without complete meiosis. Or how syngamy can also include a dikaryotic filamentous fungal cell.

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Caitlin E. McDonough-Goldstein @ideaspermatheca.bsky.social · 17/08/2026

What traits are necessary for sex? At what point does sex happen? What type/s of individuals have sex or sexes? Across the diversity of sexual reproductive cycles (multiple generations, mixed pathways, delayed fusion, modified processes), these seemingly simple questions are difficult to answer.

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Caitlin E. McDonough-Goldstein @ideaspermatheca.bsky.social · 17/08/2026

“Isn’t it obvious what sex is? Not really." - Lehtonen and Kokko (2014) Sex can relate to reproduction, recombination, meiosis, syngamy, gametes, anisogamy, phenotypic variation and more And sex is used to describe systems that involve different combinations or variations of these traits

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Caitlin E. McDonough-Goldstein @ideaspermatheca.bsky.social · 17/08/2026

How do we navigate the semantic labyrinth of sex in biology? doi.org/10.1093/icb/icag093 In developing a @treeofsex.bsky.social 2.0 ontology, we have encountered many versions of sex. In this paper, we come together to explore places of contention and make connections across concepts of sex.

doi.org

Navigating the Semantic Labyrinth of “Sex” in the Study of Reproductive Trait Evolution

Synopsis. “Sex” is a compound of many different concepts that contribute to a multiplicity of meanings. As a result, “sex” appears in a wide range of scien

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Caitlin E. McDonough-Goldstein @ideaspermatheca.bsky.social · 11/08/2026

Inside the body morphological and molecular interactions influence reproductive outcomes. Traumatic insemination may bypass barriers But in bed bugs, a new organ evolved to respond to mating and receipt of ejaculate! Find out more in a wonderful collaboration led by @martingarlovsky.bsky.social

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Martin Garlovsky @martingarlovsky.bsky.social · 07/08/2026

Very happy to see our paper just published in @molbioevol.bsky.social highlighted: academic.oup.com/mbe/article/... Probably my favourite paper to be a part of and really fun working with some great people! Bedbugs are very gross but also very cool! Paper here: academic.oup.com/mbe/article/...

academic.oup.com

Highlight: Traumatic insemination and the molecular evolution of a novel reproductive organ in bed bugs

Sex can be complicated—just ask bed bugs. The bane of many conference goers, these blood-feeding parasitic insects mate via traumatic insemination, a repro

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Tree of Sex @treeofsex.bsky.social · 24/06/2026

Yes of course sorry! univie.questionpro.eu/a/TakeSurvey...

univie.questionpro.eu

ToS.DefinitionSurvey.QuestionPro

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Tree of Sex @treeofsex.bsky.social · 24/06/2026

As everyone's winding down on #evol2026 we want to share our survey link with you again. Whether you work in reproductive biology specifically or not, please take a minute to help us understand how the scientific community uses reproductive terms in research! And hope to see you at #SMBE!

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Caitlin E. McDonough-Goldstein @ideaspermatheca.bsky.social · 22/04/2026

The spermalege is such a cool example of mitigation of the costs of mating in this system characterised by conflict. Every time I learn something new about the organ through being part of this project I am just totally stunned.

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Caitlin E. McDonough-Goldstein @ideaspermatheca.bsky.social · 22/04/2026

Check out the pre-print and more on the sperm and ejaculate side from project lead @martingarlovsky.bsky.social www.biorxiv.org/content/10.6... bsky.app/profile/mart...

biorxiv.org

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Caitlin E. McDonough-Goldstein @ideaspermatheca.bsky.social · 22/04/2026

And it is has a surprisingly similar expression profile to the female reproductive tract of other insects - and even other animals representing common functional processes associated with response to copulation and ejaculate processing arising across independent origins. bsky.app/profile/mart...

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Caitlin E. McDonough-Goldstein @ideaspermatheca.bsky.social · 22/04/2026

If the reproductive system of internal fertilisation could evolve anew would it be the same or different? This is the question we were able to investigate in bed bugs which inject sperm into a novel organ within the abdomen bypassing the reproductive tract.

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Tree of Sex @treeofsex.bsky.social · 22/06/2025

Good to see some of our US-based ToS members at #Evol2025! If you're at the meeting and interested or just curious about the project, say hi to @ajmongue.bsky.social @nicolevalenzuela.bsky.social @ideaspermatheca.bsky.social @emistasis.bsky.social, Mike White or Louise Heitzmann!

A non-random sample (spatially structured) of Tree of Sex 2.0 members at the SSE Evolution conference in Athens, Georgia.

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Pride in STEM @prideinstem.bsky.social · 26/04/2025

In a world filled with so many crucial challenges to humanity, transphobia is not just sad and anger-inducing. The demonisation and targeting of vulnerable minorities is simply pathetic. prideinstem.org/2025/04/26/s...

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simón(e) 🌑 @simonedsun.bsky.social · 05/03/2025

Scientists 🧪 then need to *DEFEND* research with animal models of gender affirming hormone therapy. If not for the unjust targeting of trans people, or for the fact such research benefits cis people too, then maybe for the continuation of their own damn research.

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Brandy Schillace @bschillace.brandyschillace.com · 21/01/2025

Good morning. It seems the right time to share that my book (preorder available) is about #scientists #transgender #LGBTQ #sexworkers and #women who fought against #Nazi fascism 🏳️‍🌈🏳️‍⚧️🧪🗃️ wwnorton.com/books/978132...

wwnorton.com

The Intermediaries

The fascinating history of a daring team of sexologists who built the first trans clinic in the shadow of the Third Reich., The Intermediaries, A Weimar Story, Brandy Schillace, 9781324036319

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Julia Serano @juliaserano.bsky.social · 04/12/2024

ICYMI

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Jess McLaughlin, PhD (they/them) @jfmclaughlin92.bsky.social · 04/12/2024

looking over the arguments also is a good (by which i mean viscerally horrifying) example of why there's a *specific* need for those of us who teach biology to be explicit in how we talk about sex and gender. so much transphobic rhetoric gains a foothold bc of misconceptions of biology + genetics

jfmclaughlin.org

Trans inclusion in the biology classroom — The McLaughlin Lab

One of my favorite parts of working at a university is getting to teach. I find biology utterly fascinating and magical, and getting to impart that to students is an incredible joy. Although I don’t c...

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simón(e) 🌑 @simonedsun.bsky.social · 04/12/2024

Progesterone, Estrogen, & Testosterone as molecules that act on biological systems engage in the same biological signaling pathways and mechanisms regardless of the sex chromosomes, gamete production, and other markers of sex. Arguments in favor Tennessee's ban on the basis of biology are lies.

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Tree of Sex @treeofsex.bsky.social · 02/12/2024

Hi folks, this is the official Tree of Sex account. We are an open consortium of reproductive scientists with the aim to catalogue reproductive knowledge across Eukaryota. You can be part of it too: treeofsex.sanger.ac.uk

treeofsex.sanger.ac.uk

Tree of Sex

Web site created using create-react-app

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Caitlin E. McDonough-Goldstein @ideaspermatheca.bsky.social · 02/12/2024

It can be any type of research (not limited to "scientific" research) - I think they'd be open to a research proposal on feminist science communication for example! (Although I recognize that is only the tip of the iceberg of the many aspects of going back to research/academia)

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Leigh Senderowicz @lsenderowicz.bsky.social · 02/12/2024

The coolest postdoc I know is now accepting applications: 🧪🔬THE WITTIG POSTDOC IN FEMINIST BIOLOGY🧪🔬 Our interdisciplinary program @ UW Madison seeks to train the next generation of feminist scientists/scholars of science Please share widely and read more here: crgw.gws.wisc.edu/scholarships...

Purple and white flyer that contains the the following information:

One of the only opportunities of its kind, the Wittig Postdoctoral Fellows Program in Feminist Science offers a fellowship at the intersection of biological/biomedical sciences and feminist science studies. We aim to train the next generation of feminist scientists/feminist science scholars and cultivate an interdisciplinary community of thinkers, practitioners, and advocates. UW Madison has a distinguished history of excellence in these areas and continues to be a dynamic site of research and teaching in feminist science scholarship.

Applicants with a new or recent PhD are invited to apply for this two year, fully funded position. We welcome scholars working at the intersection of feminist scholarship and the sciences, including the life sciences, public health, history of science, science and technology studies, or medicine. Fellows will conduct original research mentored by a UW faculty member.

This research can be feminist topics within existing research programs in the life sciences (e.g., studies of sex and the variability of sex), implementing feminist methodologies in life science research, or historical, philosophical, artistic, and feminist engagements in life science research. Successful applicants will be paired with a mentor among the UW faculty who has agreed to provide guidance during the fellowship period. For a range of examples of stellar candidates, we’ve included some sample profiles below. The postdoc will also take primary responsibility for planning and executing a feminist science one-day conference.

The Wittig postdoc is administered through the Center for Research on Gender & Women (CRGW). For further information, contact the Director of the Center for Research on Gender and Women (CRGW), Christine Garlough, clgarlough@wisc.edu.

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Caitlin E. McDonough-Goldstein @ideaspermatheca.bsky.social · 02/12/2024

Unique postdoc opportunity at the intersection of biological/biomedical sciences and feminist science studies at UW Madison. Can propose research in any field as long as the fellow will explore connections with feminist scholarship. crgw.gws.wisc.edu/scholarships... Happy to answer questions!

One of the only opportunities of its kind, the Wittig Postdoctoral Fellows Program in Feminist Science offers a fellowship at the intersection of biological/biomedical sciences and feminist science studies. We aim to train the next generation of feminist scientists/feminist science scholars and cultivate an interdisciplinary community of thinkers, practitioners, and advocates. UW Madison has a distinguished history of excellence in these areas and continues to be a dynamic site of research and teaching in feminist science scholarship.

Applicants with a new or recent PhD are invited to apply for this two year, fully funded position. We welcome scholars working at the intersection of feminist scholarship and the sciences, including the life sciences, public health, history of science, science and technology studies, or medicine. Fellows will conduct original research mentored by a UW faculty member.

This research can be feminist topics within existing research programs in the life sciences (e.g., studies of sex and the variability of sex), implementing feminist methodologies in life science research, or historical, philosophical, artistic, and feminist engagements in life science research. Successful applicants will be paired with a mentor among the UW faculty who has agreed to provide guidance during the fellowship period. For a range of examples of stellar candidates, we’ve included some sample profiles below. The postdoc will also take primary responsibility for planning and executing a feminist science one-day conference. Other available resources for training and professional development during your time here include: the Delta Center for Training and Mentorship, grant writing workshops, the Holtz Center for Science and Technology Studies, the Feminist Science Reading Group, and more.

For further information, contact the Director of the Center for Research on Gender and Women (CRGW) at UW Madison

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