iiinova — where your digital self keeps evolving

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Forming Worlds Lab @formingworlds.space · 15/09/2026

🌍✨ Last week, the FormingWorlds group attended the Europlanet Science Congress (#EPSC2026) in The Hague. We had a great time with Karen Stuitje, Saphira Brandenberger, @marianasastre.bsky.social, Emeline Decocq, @marattia.bsky.social, Lorenzo Cesario, Ema Jungová & @timlichtenberg.bsky.social!

The FormingWorlds research group smiling together at the Europlanet Science Congress 2026 in The Hague. Eight members are standing in a conference venue hall.

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Forming Worlds Lab @formingworlds.space · 08/09/2026

Accepted earlier this year in A&A, work led by Mara Attia (@marattia.bsky.social) tackles a core problem in exoplanet interiors: "PALEOS: Multiphase equations of state and mass-radius relations for exoplanet interiors" 🌍 Read: arxiv.org/abs/2605.03741 #Exoplanets

Portrait of Mara Attia with an overlaid white card displaying the title 'PALEOS: Multiphase equations of state and mass-radius relations for exoplanet interiors' and author names.

Screenshot of the paper abstract detailing how internal temperature shifts the mass-radius relationship of rocky exoplanets.

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Forming Worlds Lab @formingworlds.space · 28/08/2026

The JWST campaign on TOI-561 b, led by @johannateske.bsky.social, continues to deliver surprises! Samuel Boucher (supervised by @astrolisadang.bsky.social) just posted a new phase curve study on this lava world.

JWST phase curve from the general circulation model that best matches TOI-561 b

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Forming Worlds Lab @formingworlds.space · 24/08/2026

Earlier this summer, Mariana Sastre (@marianasastre.bsky.social) posted her first paper as lead author 🌋 "Geophysical and atmospheric implications of fO2-dependent melting on rocky exoplanets" Read the paper: arxiv.org/abs/2606.20249 #Exoplanets #PlanetaryScience

Line plot of pressure against temperature showing where mantle rock begins and finishes melting, for five oxidation states from four log units below the iron-wüstite buffer to four above. Solid lines mark the solidus and dashed lines the liquidus. The curves fan out across the plot: the most reduced case, in dark blue, melts several hundred kelvin hotter at any given pressure than the most oxidised case, in dark pink.

Portrait of Mariana Sastre, smiling, against a plain background.

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Forming Worlds Lab @formingworlds.space · 31/07/2026

New paper from Lorenzo Cesario 🔭 His third first-author paper, and he only finished his MSc this year. "Characterizing the oxidation state of rocky exoplanets with the Large Interferometer for Exoplanets (LIFE)" Read the paper: arxiv.org/abs/2607.28121 #Exoplanets #PlanetaryScience

Six panels of mid-infrared emission spectra from 6 to 16 microns, one per mantle oxidation state. A red line marks the true model spectrum, blue bands the one, two and three sigma retrieved ranges, grey the simulated instrument noise. The three reduced cases on the top row are smooth, sloping curves with few features; the three oxidised cases below carve deep, sharp absorption bands.

Portrait of Lorenzo Cesario, smiling, wearing a light blue shirt against a plain wall.

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Vincent Fortuin @vincefort.eurosky.social · 30/07/2026

I really enjoyed this collaboration: it goes to show that especially in the sciences, where data remains costly, Bayesian approaches like BO, BAL, and BED can make a difference. Also, I guess this is officially my first astrophysics paper, very exciting! 🔭🪐🌌

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Harrison Nicholls @nichollsh.bsky.social · 29/07/2026

New paper on arXiv today! On the efficacy of using novel Bayesian machine learning to dispatch 'expensive' forward models of planetary evolution. This connects with #PLATO ageing and can help solve degeneracies in current static-retrieval approaches which treat #exoplanets as snapshots.

arxiv.org

Constraining the lives and times of exoplanets through evolutionary Bayesian retrievals

Static retrieval frameworks are leading tools for interpreting exoplanet observations, yet time-independent modelling leaves them prone to degeneracy and unable to resolve exoplanets' histories. The c...

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Forming Worlds Lab @formingworlds.space · 29/07/2026

Harrison worked closely with our group all through his PhD, and still does. His new paper asks what you can learn about an exoplanet by fitting its whole life instead of a snapshot of today. 🔭 arxiv.org/abs/2607.25845 #Exoplanets #PlanetaryScience

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Forming Worlds Lab @formingworlds.space · 23/07/2026

New paper led by Joe Williams (@exeter.ac.uk), with our group among the co-authors ❄️ "Planetesimal Formation Across the Stellar Mass Spectrum and its Influence on Exoplanet-Inherited Volatile Budgets" Read the paper: arxiv.org/abs/2607.20271 #Exoplanets #PlanetaryScience

Two-panel schematic comparing how a protoplanetary disc evolves around a very low mass star and around a heavier one. The top panel, labelled 0.1 solar masses, follows a disc fed briefly by material falling in from the collapsing cloud: the disc expands, dust coagulates into icy pebbles, the pebbles drift inward and deliver their ice to the water snowline where a single generation of planetesimals forms, and the dust is then depleted, leaving grey dehydrated planetesimals. The bottom panel, labelled 0.3 solar masses and above, shows the same sequence but with a first generation of planetesimals already forming during the infall phase and a second generation later at the snowline, leaving a mix of blue water-rich and grey dehydrated bodies. A colour key marks rocky pebbles, the water sublimation front, water ice, dehydrated planetesimals and water-rich planetesimals, and an arrow along the bottom marks time running left to right.

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Joanna Drążkowska @astrojoanna.bsky.social · 22/07/2026

Our latest paper has been accepted for publication! 🎉 We demonstrated that a single late infall event perturbing the outer disk can trigger the formation of multiple giant planets and ringed disk structures resembling those observed around young stars. Paper: arxiv.org/abs/2607.18370

Figure from the paper with two rows and four columns. The upper row shows the results of the dust evolution and planet formation model. The bottom row shows synthetic observations of these snapshots. The model starts with single dust ring caused by late infall at around 80 au. In the next snapshot at 0.75 Myr, one giant planet formed and split the initial ring in two. At 1.05 Myr the planet has migrated inward, and a new planet emerged around the location of the original ring. This evolution continues, and at 1.7 Myr we have 3 giant planets at around 16 au, 23 au, and 40 au, and 3 dust rings, each located just inside of a planet.

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Harrison Nicholls @nichollsh.bsky.social · 16/07/2026

New paper with @formingworlds.space colleagues. With planetary evolution models, we demonstrate that the combined physics of redox-sensitive degassing and escape can generate transient episodes of atmospheric re-inflation on super-Earths. "Reflation" is an observational marker of reducing interiors.

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Harrison Nicholls @nichollsh.bsky.social · 17/07/2026

When are #exoplanets in equilibrium? Sulfur photochemistry has the answer to this, and to inform about planets' deep interior redox conditions directly from #JWST data. Ioannis' paper is based on his MSc project, jointly supervised by @timlichtenberg.bsky.social, @exoshami.bsky.social, and myself.

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Forming Worlds Lab @formingworlds.space · 17/07/2026

New paper led by Ioannis Panagiotou, his first as lead author, on arXiv ten days after he defended his MSc with us 🌋 "Sulfur photochemistry observationally traces mantle redox states of rocky planets" Read the paper: arxiv.org/abs/2607.15204 #Exoplanets #PlanetaryScience

Three stacked panels of synthetic emission spectra for a rocky planet around an M dwarf, plotting planet-to-star flux ratio in parts per million against wavelength from 1 to 15 microns. Coloured dashed vertical lines mark absorption features of water, methane, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide. In the top panel, for an intermediate mantle redox state, the black curve including photochemistry drops far below the grey mixing-only curve around 7 and 9 microns, deepening the sulfur dioxide features. The effect weakens in the middle panel and disappears in the bottom panel for the most oxidised mantle. Arrows below the x-axis mark the JWST NIRSpec and MIRI wavelength ranges.

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Forming Worlds Lab @formingworlds.space · 17/07/2026

New paper led by Emma Postolec, her first as lead author, PhD student at @kapteynastro.bsky.social 🌋 "Atmospheric evolution through outgassing and escape on young molten rocky exoplanets" Read the paper: arxiv.org/abs/2607.15011 #Exoplanets #PlanetaryScience

$Six panels tracking an Earth-size planet at 0.1 astronomical units from a Sun-like star over ten thousand to ten million years, comparing a model with hydrodynamic atmospheric escape (solid lines) against one without (dashed). In the escape case the atmospheric mass falls to zero and is labelled 'Atmosphere is lost', the mantle melt fraction collapses to 'Mantle solidified', and surface temperature drops sharply. Without escape the atmospheric mass instead grows, labelled 'Atmosphere is retained', and the mantle stays molten in a 'Permanent magma ocean'. Further panels show surface volatile partial pressures, a carbon-dioxide-dominated atmosphere, and the interior volatile partitioning.$ Portrait of Emma Postolec.

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timovaneldijk.bsky.social @timovaneldijk.bsky.social · 16/07/2026

A great example of the power #Opensource #Researchsoftware by the @formingworlds.space lab See also: proteus-framework.org

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Forming Worlds Lab @formingworlds.space · 16/07/2026

New paper led by Lorenzo Cesario, his second first-author paper from his MSc 🌍 Some close-in super-Earths puff their atmospheres back up late in life instead of only shrinking. We call it reflation. Read the paper: arxiv.org/abs/2607.13793 #Exoplanets #PlanetaryScience

Schematic comparing oxidised (blue, top) and reduced (red, bottom) super-Earth atmospheres evolving over time. Three planets shrink from left to right under XUV irradiation arrows driving escape to space. Reduced atmospheres are rich in CO and hydrogen with water; oxidised atmospheres in CO2, CO and water, with SO2 appearing later. The reduced planet swells before shrinking, illustrating the reflation mechanism.

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Forming Worlds Lab @formingworlds.space · 13/07/2026

🎓 Congratulations to three bachelor's graduates in the Forming Worlds Lab: Malina Ovesen, Ioana Balint and Viesturs Streľčs, who defended their BSc theses last week at @kapteynastro.bsky.social. All from one group project on how planets lose their air to space. 🔭 #Exoplanets #PlanetaryScience

Four members of the Forming Worlds Lab stand smiling under a yellow parasol on a sunny terrace at the Kapteyn Institute in Groningen, with university buildings and green trees behind them. Two of them hold small wrapped gifts. Left to right: co-supervisor Mara Attia, BSc graduate Viesturs Streľčs, project member Renske Beuker, and group leader Tim Lichtenberg.

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Forming Worlds Lab @formingworlds.space · 10/07/2026

Big congratulations to Harrison Nicholls (@nichollsh.bsky.social) 🎓 Two prizes for his PhD on the climates of rocky worlds: the Second Thesis Prize 2026 from the @iop.org Computational Physics Group, and Highly Commended for the UK Planetary Forum Early Career Medal.

Harrison Nicholls smiling on a college rooftop, holding a bottle of prosecco. He is wearing formal academic dress: a dark suit, white shirt and black bow tie, with a dark gown over his shoulders. Behind him are slate college roofs, a spire and a partly cloudy sky.

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Harrison Nicholls @nichollsh.bsky.social · 09/07/2026

Planetary evolution simulations resolving coupled interior-atmosphere interactions, from the earliest magma ocean stages onwards, enable a robust understanding of rocky worlds. Which planets stay molten, which keep atmospheres, and which become habitable? Work continues: proteus-framework.org

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Tim Lichtenberg @timlichtenberg.bsky.social · 09/07/2026

Well done Harrison, so much deserved, outstanding work! ⭐🔭🚀😃

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Forming Worlds Lab @formingworlds.space · 09/07/2026

Two Forming Worlds researchers are at Origins 2026 in Paris this week, the ISSOL astrobiology conference. Emeline Decocq and Anna Grace Ulses brought posters: one on the earliest Earth, one on false alarms for life on other worlds. With @kapteynastro.bsky.social 🔭 #PlanetaryScience #Astrobiology

Emeline Decocq (left) and Anna Grace Ulses (right) of the Forming Worlds Lab stand smiling beside their scientific posters at the Origins 2026 astrobiology conference in Paris. Decocq's poster is titled "Redox sensitivity of the surface conditions and climate state of the Hadean Earth." Ulses's poster is on the plausibility of abiotic oxygen accumulation in low non-condensable terrestrial atmospheres.

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Forming Worlds Lab @formingworlds.space · 06/07/2026

1/ Two new master's graduates in the Forming Worlds Lab! 🎓 Congratulations to Lorenzo Cesario and Ioannis Panagiotou, who both defended their MSc theses today at @kapteynastro.bsky.social with excellent work. What they did 👇 🔭 #Exoplanets #PlanetaryScience

Three people smiling in front of a framed deep-field astronomy image. Left: Ioannis Panagiotou in a black shirt holding his printed thesis. Centre: Tim Lichtenberg holding a bouquet of flowers. Right: Lorenzo Cesario in a light blue shirt holding his printed thesis.

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Forming Worlds Lab @formingworlds.space · 03/07/2026

That's a wrap on #Exoplanets6 in Porto 🇵🇹 The Forming Worlds Lab brought four posters, all using our open PROTEUS model to link a rocky world's interior (magma ocean, redox, outgassing, escape) to what JWST can observe. Featuring @marianasastre.bsky.social, @nichollsh.bsky.social & team 👇

Emma Postolec, Imre Kisvárdai, Mariana Sastre and Harrison Nicholls of the Forming Worlds Lab stand smiling in front of a large orange exo6 sculpture outside the Alfândega do Porto, venue of the Exoplanets 6 conference.

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Forming Worlds Lab @formingworlds.space · 03/07/2026

Hello, and welcome! 👋 We're the Forming Worlds Lab at @kapteynastro.bsky.social, @rug.nl. We study how rocky planets form and evolve, and what makes a world habitable, from magma oceans 🌋 to the skies of distant exoplanets 🪐, and we build the open-source PROTEUS framework our science runs on. 🔭

Around eighteen members of the Forming Worlds Lab together outdoors on a paved terrace, with trees and a university building behind them, at the University of Groningen.

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Tim Lichtenberg @timlichtenberg.bsky.social · 19/06/2026

Check out @marianasastre.bsky.social's first first-author paper on magma ocean lifetimes and atmospheric diversity on rocky exoplanets. 🙂 Congrats Mariana! 🎉🚀🔭

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Rocky Worlds Meetings @rockyworlds.bsky.social · 04/05/2026

Famous #exoplanet K2-18 b: is it a super-Earth, a sub-Neptune, or something else entirely? 🌍🌔☁️🪐 The secret of its interior lies in its exterior... the atmosphere! Hear more from Shang-Min (Shami) Tsai's #RockyWorldsDiscussion on Thu 7 May @ 13:00 UTC! More: www.rockyworlds.org/event-detail... 🧪🔭

An image of the speaker, Shang-Min (Shami) Tsai. He is smiling and looking into the camera. He has short dark hair, is wearing glasses, and a white striped shirt. He is stood inside, with a blurred background behind him featuring a window.

Credits: Illustration: NASA, ESA, CSA, Joseph Olmsted (STScI); Science: Nikku Madhusudhan (IoA)

This illustration shows what exoplanet K2-18 b could look like based on science data. K2-18 b, an exoplanet 8.6 times as massive as Earth, orbits the cool dwarf star K2-18 in the habitable zone and lies 120 light years from Earth.

A new investigation with NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope into K2-18 b, an exoplanet 8.6 times as massive as Earth, has revealed the presence of carbon-bearing molecules including methane and carbon dioxide.

The abundance of methane and carbon dioxide, and shortage of ammonia, support the hypothesis that there may be a water ocean underneath a hydrogen-rich atmosphere in K2-18 b.

In this illustration, the exoplanet K2-18 c is shown between K2-18 b and its star.

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Linn Boldt-Christmas @nplinnspace.bsky.social · 10/05/2026

🔭 The amazing Claire Marie Guimond @xoplanets.bsky.social is so good at explaining all things (exo)geoscience! 🌋🌍 I learned so much in this A+ interview about… night-side volcanism?! Where energy dissipates through tidally-locked #exoplanets from molten dayside ➡️ volcanoes form on the other side! 🤯

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Alejandro Soto @soto.space · 16/03/2026

The menagerie of planets continues to amaze. Now some scientists think they have identified a world with a permanent magma ocean and a molten core. Amazing! 🧪 #planetaryscience www.theguardian.com/science/2026...

theguardian.com

‘A molten, mushy state’: scientists may have found a new type of liquid planet

Latest observations of L98-59d, about 35 light years from Earth, suggest it could be different to anything seen before

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Hannah Sanderson @han-san-planets.bsky.social · 23/01/2026

Had a great time at #RockyWorlds4 this week - presenting my PhD work on magnetic field generation in planetesimals 🧲 and learning lots about magma oceans 🔥ready for my post doc project. Thanks to everyone for such great discussions and @rockyworlds.bsky.social for organising a fantastic meeting!

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Mariana Sastre @marianasastre.bsky.social · 22/01/2026

Poster discussions at #RockyWorlds4 has been amazing! Coffee breaks are on 🔥🔥🔥Super creative posters with incredible science, I think we are improving as a community to communicate our research to other colleagues 🧐 Looking forward for the poster competition ✨ @rockyworlds.bsky.social

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Elise Cutts @elisecutts.bsky.social · 22/01/2026

My 25th (!) newsletter post shares my main takeaway from the #RockyWorlds4 conference: Hot rocks are what's cool in rocky exoplanet research right now. Lava planets, especially look like they're about to teach us a *ton* about how rocky planets work. So come on in, the lava's fine! 🧪🔭

reviewertoo.com

Hot rocks are what's cool in rocky exoplanet research

Habitable zone? Pfft. For exciting planetary science discoveries, keep your eye on lava worlds and hot rocks.

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Rocky Worlds Meetings @rockyworlds.bsky.social · 20/01/2026

Looks like Planet Earth is a fan of #RockyWorlds4 as it gifted us with a gorgeous conference souvenir last night! 🤩🔭🧪

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Elise Cutts @elisecutts.bsky.social · 20/01/2026

Another cool result shared at #RockyWorlds4: Nearly all sub-Neptunes, if they are gas dwarfs (as opposed to water worlds), should have magma oceans beneath their hydrogen atmospheres. That includes the notorious K2-18b — if it is indeed a gas dwarf and not an ocean planet. Preprint:

arxiv.org

Most Rocky Sub-Neptunes are Molten: Mapping the Solidification Shoreline for Gas Dwarf Exoplanets

Sub-Neptunes are the most common type of detected exoplanet, yet their observed masses and radii are degenerate with several interior structures. One possibility is that sub-Neptunes have silicate/iro...

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Tim Lichtenberg @timlichtenberg.bsky.social · 20/01/2026

You're welcome! 🔭😊 The LOC of #RockyWorlds4 (groningen2026.rockyworlds.org/organisers/loc) is doing everything they can to make the conference an unforgettable experience. 😁

groningen2026.rockyworlds.org

ROCKY WORLDS 4 - LOC

Mariana Sastre

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Mariana Sastre @marianasastre.bsky.social · 20/01/2026

✨Auroras✨ over Groningen,NL during the first after-conference day of @rockyworlds.bsky.social This planet is just so incredible! Looking forward for the talks, sessions and activities the rest of the week🌌

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Elise Cutts @elisecutts.bsky.social · 19/01/2026

@johannateske.bsky.social's #RockyWorlds4 talk on TOI-561 b just reinforces my feeling that this weird little planet is one to keep an eye on. It's among a handful of hot rocks challenging what we think we know about which planets have air. I wrote about this last year for @sciam.bsky.social:

scientificamerican.com

This Fiery Exoplanet Shouldn’t Have an Atmosphere—But It Does

Hot, small and old—exoplanet TOI-561 b is just about the worst place to look for alien air. Scientists using JWST found it there anyway

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Kapteyn Astronomical Institute @kapteynastro.bsky.social · 19/01/2026

At #RockyWorlds4 in Groningen, scientists explore rocky planets with radically different chemistries and atmospheres. With the LIFE mission, they aim to study exoplanets directly and look for unexpected signs of life — not aliens, but subtle atmospheric clues. Read more: www.rug.nl/fse/news/mat...

rug.nl

De zoektocht naar buitenaards leven – en kunnen we die ook wat oprekken?

Op zoek naar buitenaards leven kijken we meestal naar planeten die min of meer lijken op de aarde. RUG-astrofysici Inga Kamp en Floris van der Tak leggen...

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Tad Komacek @tadkomacek.bsky.social · 18/01/2026

Congratulations, @nichollsh.bsky.social! Your thesis was a joy to read, and it was great to get to know you over the past 1.5 years. I look forward to seeing the research that you and Oli get up to at Cambridge. Perhaps almost as impressive was your AOPP champagne cork shot! Video below.

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Tim Lichtenberg @timlichtenberg.bsky.social · 18/01/2026

Congratulations @nichollsh.bsky.social for your outstanding work and thesis results! 🔭🚀🌋 It has been and continues to be privilege to work with you, and all the very best for your new endeavour at Cambridge! 🌟💻

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Johanna Teske @johannateske.bsky.social · 17/01/2026

I'm excited to spend the week hearing and talking about rocky worlds! This is one of my favorite meeting series, I leave energized and with new ideas. 😁 You can follow along with the talks on YouTube if you aren't joining us in person or on Zoom: www.youtube.com/@rockyworlds...

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Johanna Teske @johannateske.bsky.social · 17/01/2026

P.S. Follow along on Bluesky with #RockyWorlds4 (h/t @nplinnspace.bsky.social 🙌🏻)

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Rocky Worlds Meetings @rockyworlds.bsky.social · 16/01/2026

Wondering why we've been so quiet this month? That's because we're busy preparing to welcome everyone *next week* to Groningen 🇳🇱 for... 🌋✨🚀 The ROCKY WORLDS 4 Conference 2026! 🪐✨☄️ Updates will be posted throughout the week from this account & others using the #RockyWorlds4 hashtag – stay tuned! 🔭🧪

A view of the canal in the city of Groningen, Netherlands. The sky is blue and the trees lining the water are green, so it's *definitely* not taken in January. Credit: https://www.hanze.nl/en/study/living-in-the-netherlands-and-groningen/groningen-is-waiting-for-you

A screenshot from our conference website: https://groningen2026.rockyworlds.org/

The text reads:
Rocky Worlds 4
19–23 January 2026, Groningen, Netherlands
In-person registrations for the conference are booked up.
Registration for virtual participation is open.

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Lorena Acuña @astrolore.bsky.social · 05/12/2025

Hi all! If you are looking for a conference in exoplanet interiors in 2026, check out "Layers of Understanding: Model Intercomparisons of Exoplanet Interiors": layersofunderstanding2026.github.io It will take place in MPIA's campus in April 13-17th. The registration deadline is 15 January 2026

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Kat Lee @astrokat.bsky.social · 31/10/2025

Are you a grad student interested in writing for Astrobites, or do you know one? We're recruiting! Apply by November 26 :) astrobites.org/2025/10/31/a...

astrobites.org

Apply to Write for Astrobites 2025!

Love astronomy, astrophysics, and science communication? Come join the Astrobites team! Applications due November 26th.

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Python Software Foundation @python.org · 27/10/2025

TLDR; The PSF has made the decision to put our community and our shared diversity, equity, and inclusion values ahead of seeking $1.5M in new revenue. Please read and share. pyfound.blogspot.com/2025/10/NSF-... 🧵

python.org

The official home of the Python Programming Language

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Tim Lichtenberg @timlichtenberg.bsky.social · 26/10/2025

Together with Kristina Kislyakova, Louis Müller, Anuja Raorane, and @exocytherean.bsky.social we are organising the session "Early Solar system: crucial timings for habitability" at @egu.eu 2026. Please consider submitting an abstract if you work on these issues. :)

meetingorganizer.copernicus.org

Session PS5.2

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Tim Lichtenberg @timlichtenberg.bsky.social · 16/10/2025

@kapteynastro.bsky.social of @rug.nl invites applications for in total 7 PhD and 4 ERC-funded postdoc positions in our annual call. ⭐🔭 PhD positions: aas.org/jobregister/... Postdoctoral positions: aas.org/jobregister/... #exoplanet #astronomy #geoscience 🧪🔭⭐ [Image credit: Mark A. Garlick.]

Lava world in front of a star. Image credit: Mark A. Garlick

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Tim Lichtenberg @timlichtenberg.bsky.social · 13/10/2025

w/ Oli Shorttle, @johannateske.bsky.social & Eliza Kempton we reviewed our current understanding and prospects for peaking on the inside of small #exoplanets in "Constraining exoplanet interiors using observations of their atmospheres": www.science.org/stoken/autho... & arxiv.org/abs/2510.08844 🔭🧪⚒️☄️

Illustration of predicted interior structures of sub-Neptune exoplanets. Observed density and atmospheric constraints are interpreted in three scenarios, each with a gaseous envelope. Water worlds have a small metal core, rocky mantle, high-pressure ice layer, and possible liquid water ocean. Gas dwarfs have a larger metal core and a magma ocean. Global supercritical regimes have no clear boundaries between layers. Image credit: Mark A. Garlick.

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