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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 29/09/2026

This is written by a user of mass spectrometers not a mass spectrometrist (there is a big difference). I'll happily correct errors. Soon I'll post a blog version with more detail/background & a rant about 'experts on the internet' & how they take the fun out of these summaries.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 29/09/2026

Something different, a #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky intro to mass spectrometry. It just gives a high level overview, focusing on the spectrum, the peaks (molecular ion, isotope & fragment peaks) & the types of data (not how it is generated) & the 'fun' of different definitions for mass.

A one page introduction to mass spectrometry. This is just looking at the kind of output, a mass spectrum, that students will encounter and gives a brief explanation. It starts by trying to explain what mass spectrometry does (sorts ions by m/z), then shows a spectrum and indicates the kinds of peak that you might encounter before talking about where the data comes from (but not how it is generated) and then finally finishing with the fun idea that there are different definitions of mass.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 08/09/2026

This #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky is a stopgap. It wasn't made for MakingMolecules.com (there is no blog post (& different colours)). It wasn't written for students but was written to jog my memory (guess what I'm doing this week is?). Disclaimer done! I hope someone else finds it useful. Enjoy?

This is a quick recap on the fragmentation of peptides in an electrospray ionisation ESI mass spectrometer and a list of the common amino acids with some useful information about them.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 25/08/2026

The accompaniment to the last #Chemistry #ChemEd #ChemSky summary is now online at: www.makingmolecules.com/blog/sigmatr... The blog version contains more examples & talks you through the chemistry instead of just giving the pictures (bsky.app/profile/maki...). Anyways, I hope it is useful. Enjoy

makingmolecules.com

Pericyclic Reactions: Sigmatropic Rearrangements — Making Molecules

This summary covers the most common [3,3]-sigmatropic rearrangements, the (oxy)-Cope rearrangement and the Claisen rearrangement, along with many of its variants. The rearrangements share a motif with...

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 11/08/2026

There will be a longer blog over at www.makingmolecules.com soon(ish), I've just got to type-up my handwritten notes (no AI for some of us). But could be worse, I've recently learnt that Neal Stephenson's Baroque Cycle was handwritten (a stack of pages 42 inches high).

makingmolecules.com

Making Molecules

Organic chemistry summaries. 1 page summaries of key concepts in organic chemistry. Mostly aimed at undergraduate chemistry or university level organic chemistry.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 11/08/2026

The next #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky 1-page intro covers common [3,3]-sigmatropic rearrangements. Lovely reactions that are a nice way to form C-C bonds with good control of stereochemistry from readily formed precursors. As always, it's just an intro, no orbitals & no Woodward-Hoffmann. Enjoy.

This one-page summary looks at [3,3]-sigmatropic rearrangements. It starts by giving a quick run down of the naming convention (where the [3,3] or [i,j] nomenclature comes from. There is then an attempt to have one diagram cover all the common [3,3]-sigmatropic rearrangements such as the Cope, anionic oxy-Cope, Claisen and a host of modified Claisen rearrangements. This also gives a quick look at the chance of controlling the stereochmistry. Then there are examples of the anionic oxy-Cope rearrangement, the Johnson-Claisen and the Ireland-Claisen rearrangement. Hope you all like it.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 28/07/2026

As promised in the previous #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky post, I have written a more wordy/detailed overview of 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions. It is available below: I stress it is still an introduction but allows me to words/explanation than I can on a one-page summary. Hope it is useful, enjoy.

makingmolecules.com

1,3-Dipolar Cycloadditions — Making Molecules

Cycloadditions provide a controlled method for the construction of ring systems. 1,3-Dipolar cycloadditions form five-membered heterocycles. Electronically, these reactions involve 4+2 π electrons &am...

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 14/07/2026

This #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky summary introduces 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions. It builds on the Diels-Alder 1 pagers & is another [4+2] cycloaddition but gives 5-membered rings. It is only an intro. More details will be on makingmolecules.com as soon as I've typed up my notes. Enjoy!

A one page summary of 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions. It starts with an introduction covering the general reaction and classifying 1,3-dipoles as either linear or bent. There are then four examples; nitrile oxide-alkene cycloadditions, nitrone-alkene cycloadditions, azide-alkyne cycloadditions and azomethine ylide cycloadditions (my favourite). The discussion of the azide reaction mentions the original pericyclic reaction and the catalysed variant that won the Nobel Prize.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 16/06/2026

#ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky summary looks at modifications of the Diels-Alder reaction. It includes IMDA (tie the ends together), HDA (swap one (or more) carbons out) & IEDDA. It mentions the old explanation for LA catalysis (the more modern explanation is at makingmolecules.com/blog/da-like...)

A summary of modified Diels-Alder reactions. It starts with the general reaction scheme showing the control of relative stereochemistry and the normal electronics. There is then a quick look at how you can alter the electronics (frontier molecular orbitals) to change the reaction (acceleration or inverse demand). Then there are four examples: a Lewis acid accelerated reaction with improved regioselectivity; an intramolecular Diels-Alder reaction (IMDA) where the two reactants have been tied together; a hetero-Diels-Alder reaction (HDA) where one carbon has been replaced by an oxygen atom; a bonus intramolecular hetero-Diels-Alder reaction just to show you string these things together and then an inverse electron demand Diels-Alder (IEDDA) where the dienophile is electron rich and the diene electron poor. More information can be found at https://www.makingmolecules.com/blog/da-like-reactions

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 02/06/2026

And yes, I accidentally posted this on my 'non-chemistry' account (sorry to anyone foolish enough to follow both accounts)

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 02/06/2026

My 1st #Chemistry #ChemEd #ChemSky summary on pericyclic reactions (more to follow) & it is on the Diels-Alder reaction. This is a fantastic reaction but I only cover the basics. Bond formation, regioselectivity (very simplistically) & a comment on exo vs endo. No Woodward-Hoffmann rules. Enjoy.

A one page summary of the Diels-Alder reaction. This is just the basics and only covers a general reaction showing which bonds are made. Then gives a superficial explanation of regiochemistry followed by comments on endo vs exo selectivity.
For more details see https://www.making molecules.com

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 12/05/2026

As promised, a #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky summary introducing enamines as enolate equivalents. It's only an intro so covers formation + 3 reactions. No regio- or stereoselectivity even though they're fun. I did include the catalytic cycle from enamine organocatalysis as people expect it. Enjoy.

A summary covering the simple alkylation of enamines (or enamines acting as enolate equivalents).
It shows the general reaction along with the mechanism for the formation of enamines and then the mechanism for their alkylation. There is a summary of three reactions, alkylation, Michael or conjugate addition and the aldol reaction. The mechanism for enamine organocatalysis is also included as I'd be daft not to these days.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 28/04/2026

After enols & enolates, here's a #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky on enolate equivalents. These allow control of selectivity & permit stereoselective enolate chemistry (something I love & will eventually write a summary on). Here is formation & aldol-like reaction. Enamines will get their own summary.

A summary covering some simple enolate equivalents. It looks at the formation of lithium enolates with LDA and shows the use of this reagent in the aldol reaction. Then there are the silyl enol ethers and their use in a Lewis acid activated aldol-like reaction. Finally, there are the wonderful boron enolates. And, you guessed it, their use in an aldol reaction. Next summary will have enamines.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 22/04/2026

No #ChemEd #Chemistry summary this week as the Analytical Science team was unleashed for a night of science, chemistry and fun. Big thanks to Brad and Daisy.

One very cold flower about to meet its doom

Daisy, Brad and my good self before all the fun starts

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 14/04/2026

Breaking radio silence with 2x #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky summaries of aldol-like rcts. These are just lists of reactions without the explanation of the last couple of summaries. One tries to include mechanisms. More a stop gap than anything else. Hopefully, someone will find them useful. Enjoy.

A summary of aldol-like reactions, listing the most common examples found in many UG courses. There is an attempt to add some mechanisms to this, but not much. Not much in the way of explanation either. It is just a list!

A summary of aldol-like reactions, listing the most common examples found in many UG courses. It is purely a list and not very exciting. Might be a revision aid. Might not (it was a stop gap as I was too busy to put together proper summary!).

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 24/03/2026

This was stolen from @bagphos.bsky.social and says the same thing more amusingly.A

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 24/03/2026

Having introduced the aldol, here is a #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky summary of the more common named variants. They're all the same reaction (just the electrophile/nucleophile changes; see reply). The mechanism is the same. Don't let the names mislead you. Hopefully it is useful to some.

Aldol-like reactions. All of these involve a stabilised anion adding to an electrophile, either a carbonyl group or an iminium ion.
It covers the general mechanism and then gives examples of the Claisen & Dieckmann condensations (enolate adding to an ester. Only difference is if they are attached to each other). The Mannich reaction (enol adding to iminium species) and the Henry reaction (or nitro-aldol. A nitro stabilised anion adding to an aldehyde)... wow autocorrect hates chemistry after all these years and many additions to the user dictionary. I almost understand why some students switch it off.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 10/03/2026

The obvious next post after looking at enols/enolates is the aldol reaction. The aldol reaction is an impressive beast used by both nature and chemists. This #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky summary is just the intro. There will be more over the coming weeks. I hope UG enjoy this!

A summary or introduction to the aldol reaction. It shows the general reaction with both the aldol addition and the aldol condensation. This is followed by the curly arrow mechanism for the base-promoted aldol addition and the base-promoted aldol condensation. After that, there is, of course, the acid-catalysed version.
Finally, I mention the crossed or mixed aldol and allude to the fact that selectivity can become an issue.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 24/02/2026

Enolates (& their equivalents) are one of the cornerstones of many a good synthesis. So here is a #Chemistry #ChemEd #ChemSky intro to their formation & general reaction. More details on the aldol reaction & enolate equivalents will be in subsequent summaries. Enjoy.

A one page summary covering the formation and a couple of basic reactions of enolates (more reactions, like the aldol reaction will come in subsequent summaries). This is divided into three boxes. 1) Formation by deportation, including a brief discussion of regiochemistry in non-symmetric ketones. 2) A cartoon of the general reaction of enolates (reaction at the alpha position). 3) some useful examples of reactions that don't totally follow my generalisation.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 10/02/2026

The 1st of a few #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky summaries related to enols/enolates/etc. This one covers keto-enol tautomerization and two reactions of enols. As always, it is just meant to cover the basics. It is a summary to refresh/support students' memories. As such, I hope it is of some use.

A summary of the formation of enols or keto-enol tautomerization and then two reactions of enols. There are four boxes of information. The first shows the curly arrow mechanism for both the acid and base catalysed formation of enols. The second box looks at the stability of the enol. Then we turn our attention to the bromination and nitrosation of an enol. THe mechanism is the same for both and hopefully reinforces some basic principles.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 27/01/2026

The obligatory summary of a summary and a table of E1 vs E2 vs Sn1 vs Sn2. Hopefully, this is of use to some, but if I'm brutally honest, it was just a quick stop gap while I work on more fun #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky summaries (currently writing ones on cycloadditions and rearrangements). Cheers

The classic table of E1 vs E2 vs SN1 vs SN2. Hopefully it is useful in giving UG students an idea of what mechanism might be in operative and answering some of those annoying exam questions (reality sucks, and it is highly likely that multiple mechanisms will be operating at the same time!).

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 20/01/2026

The obvious follow-up to SN1/SN2 substitution is a #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky summary on E1/E2 elimination. This summary only looks at E1/E2 & not fun like E1cB. More detail is www.makingmolecules.com/blog/elimina.... Enjoy (& yes a summary of which mechanism operates is coming next week). Enjoy

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 14/01/2026

Probably the same textbook that I actually bought twice (with my own money, and considering the number of 'freebies' I got from reps over the years that is saying something!)

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 13/01/2026

Today's #Chemistry #ChemEd #ChemSky summary is SN1/SN2 substitution. I waited until 46th summary to cover this as I don't think it's as important as the chemistry of the carbonyl group (but is invariably introduced 1st in textbooks 🤷‍♂️go figure). More info www.makingmolecules.com/blog/substit... enjoy

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 06/01/2026

I have posted an erroneous summary for 2 (v. poor) reasons: 1) It agrees with the textbooks, so is what most undergraduates are taught (& that is the point of these summaries) &; 2) I haven't had a chance to update it even though it is several years old (writing new summaries instead).

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 06/01/2026

For those interested in an intro to rate-determining states (replacing Rate Determining Steps) see ChemPhysChem 2011, 12, 1413 (doi.org/10.1002/cphc... (behind a paywall)) or Chem Soc Rev 2025, 54, 9145 (doi.org/10.1039/D4CS...) 'Enjoy' (but not too much as it isn't synthetic/organic chemistry)

doi.org

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 06/01/2026

A contentious #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky summary covering rates of reaction. It is the textbook version & is wrong if you understand kinetics ;) I'll add references showing why as a reply. It's here as most UG still learn it. Hopefully it is useful & doesn't cause too many misconceptions

A summary of the rates of reaction as found in textbooks (another way of saying, it is a gross simplification that is incorrect). Useful (hopefully) at the beginning of a student's study of mechanisms.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 02/12/2025

My employer (a certain large dairy co-op) might have few very good examples of them! The ones I know will certainly find all the mistakes I’ve made.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 02/12/2025

The last MakingMolecules #Chemistry #ChemEd #ChemSky of the year, but what a post, an org chemist introducing rates of reaction with collision theory! The pool analogy is shaky/orientation is important than direction/frequency not numbers). It's a vital topic but find a physical chemist for details.

A rough introduction to collision theory. Simplistically, collision theory treats molecules as hard spheres and says they will react if they hit each other with sufficient energy and in the correct orientation. The energy is required to overcome activation barrier. There is an analogy to pool and that you can think about trying to pot a ball. Needs two balls to hit, needs to have the correct energy and need them to be orientate correctly so that the ball goes in the pocket (but I'm avoiding saying direction as that is incorrect and causes confusion). TO accelerate a reaction you can increase the concentration as this increases the frequency of reactions. You can heat them up, the more they move the higher the frequency of collisions. The hotter the molecules, the more energy and the more chance of having sufficient energy. Or you could add a catalyst and this lowers the amount of energy the molecules require by changing rhetorical reaction pathway.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 25/11/2025

After 2 months of aromatic chem, here is something a little different (but not that different) & a #Chemistry #ChemSky #ChemEd summary on conjugate or 1,4- or Michael additions. To sound like a stuck record, it is aimed at UG with only the general mechanism & brief notes on regioselectivity. Enjoy.

A one page summary of conjugate additions. It is split into four sections. The first is the overall transformation with a list of the general structures that can participate in conjugate additions. The second section is a general formula. It covers the main steps but is a little vague on the proton transfers (like most organic chemists). Next there is a brief look at regioselectivity and what factors influence 1,2-addition versus 1,4-addition. It is not in depth but gives pointers. Finally, there are some examples.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 18/11/2025

The last nucleophilic aromatic substitution #Chemistry #ChemEd #ChemSky summary is a summary of the previous summaries. It shows 4 mechanisms of nucleophilic aromatic substitution including classic substitution, aryne intermediates, ionic & radical substitution of diazonium salts. Hope it helps.

A summary of the different methods for nucleophilic aromatic substitution. This includes the displacement of an activate leaving group (such as a fluoro derivative), the substitution of a halide through the formation of an aryne intermediate, and two mechanisms for the substitution of diazonium salts; either through an ionic mechanism or a metal mediated radical substitution.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 11/11/2025

With stunning originality & a certain amount of flare, I give you Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution 3. A #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky summary discussing substitution via aryne intermediates. It is pitched at #UG. More detail/references at www.makingmolecules.com/blog/benzyne Hope it is useful Enjoy

Another summary on nucleophilic aromatic substitution. In the first box, it shows that elimination can form an aryne that allows addition to occur. Overall, this results in substitution. The second box gives the mechanism and shows that two products can be formed depending on which end of the aryne the nucleophile adds. The third box shows a crude/simplified view of aryne structure while the final box shows one way of explaining regioselectivity (a more modern approach exists and there is a link to the appropriate paper).

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 04/11/2025

The second #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky summary on nucleophilic aromatic substitution. This time it covers the formation & use of diazonium salts. The substitution mechanism is either ionic or radical depending on the nucleophile. Good(ish) with paracyclophane (honest)! Hope this is useful. Enjoy

A summary of nucleophilic aromatic substitution using diazonium salts. There is a summary of the most common transformations (phenols, halides, nitriles and a reduction). There is a curly arrow mechanism of diazonium salt formation. Finally, there is the mechanism of ionic substitution and the radical substitution.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 21/10/2025

After 3 #Chemistry #ChemSky #ChemEd summaries on electrophilic aromatic substitution, we move to the nucleophilic variant SNAr (surprise). Not as common (due to structural limitations), but equally useful. Next week, the same reaction but with diazonium salts. Hopefully no silly mistakes this time!

A one page summary of nucleophilic aromatic substitution. The first box introduces the transformation. The second is the general addition-elimination mechanism. The third looks at the importance of substitution patterns and the last box gives potential useful substituents and reagents.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 14/10/2025

Anyone for a summary of a summary? After two weeks of #ChemEd #ChemSky #Chemistry summaries on electrophilic aromatic substitution here, by popular demand, is one chart that covers just the basics. Enjoy.

A summary of electrophilic aromatic substitution. This really is the barebones - all it covers is the general mechanism, examples of the most common reactions and activation & directing effects. This is basically a revision sheet.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 07/10/2025

More electrophilic aromatic substitution. Last week was the general reaction, today covers (de)activation & directing effects. It is a #UG simplification so no discussion of inductive effect vs hyperconjugation etc (or the transannular effect). Enjoy #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky

A one page summary of activating and directing effects in electrophilic aromatic substitution. There are 6 boxes. 1 - introduces naming relative to the initial substituent (ortho, meta and para). 2 - then looks at strong activating groups (EDG) & the fact that they are ortho para directing. 3 - introduces weak activators like alkyl groups (and we can argue whether I should use inductive effects or hyperconjugation as the reason). These are mostly ortho directing electronically but para directing due to steric. 4 - deactivating groups due to electron withdrawing groups (EWG) that are meta directing (or rather not orthodox and para directing). 5 - states that halides are deactivating but ortho para directing then 6 gives an example of using these effects.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 30/09/2025

Here's a #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky summary of electrophilic aromatic substitution. As an ex-[2.2]paracyclophane chemist, this is a reaction dear to my heart. Here is just the basic mechanism aimed at UG (the mechanisms for electrophile activation are www.makingmolecules.com/blog/electro...). Enjoy

A summary of electrophilic aromatic substitution. There are six boxes. The first gives the general reaction and why it is different to addition to an alkene. The second gives the general curly arrow mechanism. After that it is a look at specific examples: bromination, nitration, sulfonation, Friedel-Crafts alkylation and Friedel-Crafts acylation. If you want more detail of the mechanisms of activation of the electrophiles read https://www.makingmolecules.com/blog/electrophilic-aromatic-substitution

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 23/09/2025

These #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky summaries target early UG & the basics. Except when they don't. Here is a follow-up to anti-Markovnikov addition summary & a look at asymmetric hydroboration. It's still a summary. Only substrate control & pinene reagents. www.makingmolecules.com/blog/asymhyd...

A summary of asymmetric hydroboration under either substrate control or pinene reagent control. The first box shows simple hydroboration. The second box shows an example of stereoselective hydroboration of a chiral cyclic molecule or substrate control. Then there is a look at stereoselective hydroboration of acyclic alkenes with an allylic stereocentre. Finally, there is reagent controlled hydroboration using pinene derived reagents to control the enantioselectivity of hydroboration.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 16/09/2025

No MakingMolecules #ChemEd summary today as NZ_Molecules is in Singapore with the wonderful folk at Gerstel (& only being a tiny bit jealous of their kit). I feel a summary of sensory directed analysis coming at some point as it is simply fascinating (& a powerful technique to help at work).

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 09/09/2025

A #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky summary of anti-Markovnikov addition to alkenes using radical hydrobromination or hydroboration/oxidation. It's classic UG material introducing regioselectivity/stabilising intermediates. It's a simplification, more at www.makingmolecules.com/blog/antimar...

A graphical summary of anti-Markovnikov addition to alkenes. It starts by showing the different products possible by hydrobromination and how the choice of reagent and control the regiochemistry. The second box contains the radical chain mechanism that explains anti-Markovnikov addition of HBr. The second half of the summary looks at hydroboration-oxidation and its mechanism.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 02/09/2025

No new #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky summary today, just an attempt to summarise the alkene chemistry that has been covered in the last couple of infographics. It also acts as a spoiler for next week's look at anti-Markovnikov addition. Hopefully it still has some use.

A summary of common electrophilic addition to alkenes including bromination, bromohydrin formation, hydration, epoxidation, hydrogenation, dihydroxylation, and radical reactions.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 26/08/2025

A #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky intro to the frontier molecular orbital view of electrophilic addition to alkenes. It is a companion to the last one (bsky.app/profile/maki...). It is an oversimplification but useful at #UG level (I hope). It shows the limitations of curly arrow mechanisms. Enjoy.

The frontier molecular orbital (valence bond) view of electrophilic addition to alkenes employed by organic chemists at undergraduate level. The summary shows the orbitals involved in hydrohalogenation, bromination, epoxidation and some of the factors influencing reactivity. It is a companion to last week's curly arrow summary.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 19/08/2025

The 1st in a series of #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky summaries on the reactions of alkenes. I'm starting with nucleophilic alkenes & the common UG reactions of the addition of HX, Br2, epoxidation etc. It's a bit crowded but hopefully it is useful. More details & reactions over the coming weeks.

A summary of the reactions of alkenes behaving as nucleophiles. This covers the common examples such as the addition of HX, bromination, bromhydrin formation, epoxidation with peracids and syn dihydroxylation. In each case, I've given the curly arrow mechanism and a brief explanation of any regioselectivity. There is also a quick overview of carbocation stability (again, to help with the explanation of regioselectivity).

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 12/08/2025

A #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky summary of acyl substitution. There is one mechanism repeated multiple times (with variations). It is addition & elimination. Acylation is possibly the most important reaction (along with proton transfer) for non-chemists taking chemistry. Hope this is useful. Enjoy.

A summary on nucleophilic acyl substitution. It starts with the loathsome chart of carboxylic acid derivative reactivity (with the addition of pKa just to highlight the important of leaving group on reactivity as well as the normal discussion of electrophilicity). Then there is the mechanism for the formation of acyl chlorides. Important for chemists, not so important for those interested in biology/biochemistry. Then there are three general mechanisms that can be applied to a host of reactions. The first is the attack of an anionic nucleophile. The second is acyl substitution with a neutral nucleophile and finally we have acid-catalysed acyl substitution. Hopefully these can be applied to the vasty majority of reactions that UG will encounter.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 05/08/2025

More nucleophilic addition to aldehydes/ketones, this #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky summary covers condensation & the formation/hydrolysis of acetals, imines & enamines. The mechanism is the same each time, but understanding why they deliver different products is important. Enjoy

A summary of the condensation reactions of aldehydes/ketones. This is nucleophilic addition to the carbonyl with substitution of the oxygen atom. There are six sections. The first shows the formation of an acetal or addition of two equivalents of alcohol across an aldehyde or ketone. The second shows the reverse reaction, the addition of water across an acetal to give an aldehyde or ketone. The third box shows the mechanism of acetal formation and discusses how to make the reaction irreversible. The fourth section is imine formation and the addition of a primary amine to an aldehyde/ketone. It includes the mechanism. The fifth box is enamine formation by using a secondary amine. And finally there is summary about the differences between the addition of alcohols, primary or secondary amines.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 29/07/2025

A #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky intro to models for explaining diastereoselectivity of nuc addition to C=O with an α stereocentre. It is a huge simplification. A tease for a fascinating subject. Other models exist but these are the ones often found at UG. Enjoy www.makingmolecules.com/blog/diaster...

A summary of the simple models for diastereoselective addition to aldehydes/ketones. The summary is divided into seven sections. 1. An introduction showing a nucleophile attacking an aldehyde with an α stereocenter. 2. An assumption that the nucleophile approaches along the Bürgi-Dunitz angle. 3. The nucleophile will be assumed to be a bare anion (this box shows that this is rarely true). 4. Felkin-Anh model. 5. Polar Felkin-Anh model. 6. Modified Cornforth model. 7. Cram chelation model.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 22/07/2025

This #ChemEd #Chemistry #ChemSky summary is an intro to nucleophilic addition to aldehydes/ketones. It's the 1st of many as I think carbonyl addition is far more useful than the traditional Sn1/Sn2 approach for teaching the basics (& more examples in biology). Hopefully it's useful. Enjoy.

Nucleophilic addition to aldehydes and ketones. This is an introduction to this vital reaction. It just covers simple addition and some guidelines to whether the reaction is reversible or irreversible. Hopefully, it acts as the foundations to more discussion about specific examples. There are 5 boxes. 1. Shows why the carbonyl group is electrophilic. 2. looks at the general reaction mechanism of addition and then protonation (and I am aware that this can be reversed but you've got to stat somewhere). 3. Is irreversible addition and protonation. 4. Is reversible addition with either a nitrile or alcohol. 5. Finally shows the orbitals but is really just a teaser.

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Making Molecules @makingmolecules.com · 15/07/2025

There haven’t been any updates to MakingMolecules, as I was preparing a workshop on #SciCommun for MESA www.linkedin.com/company/macd... These slides (alt text for an explanation) give a flavour of the day. It was a fun day with a great bunch of scientists. MakingMolecules will return soon(ish).

Two slides from a science communication workshop given to MESA students. The first slide is the title and says "Tips on Science Communication" and "Gareth Rowlands"
Second slide was a summary that covers the four key concepts: 1. Have one big idea, 2. Know your audience, 3. Present a story, 4. Refine, edit and practice.

Two more slides. The first shows pictures I made using PowerPoint - one is of a small extracellular vesicles and the other is of a membrane used in TRPS for counting particles.
The second slide shows how you can use the three act model to introduce a story to the communication. It is based around the AND, BUT, THEREFORE method of story telling.

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